Gold represents those publications where the final published version of an article (Version of Record) is freely and permanently available online immediately on publication for anyone, anywhere to read. This includes articles in hybrid journals. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Green represents those publications where a version of an article is publicly shared online, often as an Accepted Manuscript. To support a sustainable business model, publishers may maintain an embargo and/or may retain an Exclusive License to Publish. Articles, reviews and conference papers are counted as Green open access only if they are not also Gold. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Bronze represents those publications that are made free-to-read on the publisher’s website, but are not identified as gold for one of the following reasons: access for a limited duration, an unclear license, or a license that is clear but is not a Creative Commons license. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Subscription-only represents those publications that are available through individual or institutional subscriptions, individual purchases, or other programs (e.g. Research4Life) but not available through Open Access. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Gold OA is the most selected OA type
…for authors in all the top 30 countries/regions. In nineteen of the top 30 countries/regions, gold OA comprises at least half of total publications in 2025; Sweden (83%), The Netherlands (77%), Switzerland (75%), Poland (73%), United Kingdom (70%), Germany (69%), Spain (67%), Australia (64%), Indonesia (63%), Italy (62%), Mexico (60%), Saudi Arabia (59%), Thailand (57%), Canada (55%), Iraq (54%), Egypt (53%), Japan (53%), Malaysia (51%) and France (50%). Brazil and South Korea are also very near to achieving this milestone at 49%. In only three countries/regions does gold OA account for 40% or less in 2025; China (33%), India (25%), and Russian Federation (37%), who are ranked first, third and twelfth respectively, in terms of total article output.
Gold represents those publications where the final published version of an article (Version of Record) is freely and permanently available online immediately on publication for anyone, anywhere to read. This includes articles in hybrid journals. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Green represents those publications where a version of an article is publicly shared online, often as an Accepted Manuscript. To support a sustainable business model, publishers may maintain an embargo and/or may retain an Exclusive License to Publish. Articles, reviews and conference papers are counted as Green open access only if they are not also Gold. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Bronze represents those publications that are made free-to-read on the publisher’s website, but are not identified as gold for one of the following reasons: access for a limited duration, an unclear license, or a license that is clear but is not a Creative Commons license. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Subscription-only represents those publications that are available through individual or institutional subscriptions, individual purchases, or other programs (e.g. Research4Life) but not available through Open Access. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Gold OA is available for the majority of articles, reviews and conference papers
…for authors in all of the top thirty countries/regions (by volume of output) in 2025. The availability of gold OA exceeded 90% for nineteen countries or regions. Gold availability fell below 85% for the same three countries and regions where gold OA uptake fell below 40%; China (83%), India (81%), and Russian Federation (69%).
Gold represents those publications where the final published version of an article (Version of Record) is freely and permanently available online immediately on publication for anyone, anywhere to read. This includes articles in hybrid journals. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Green represents those publications where a version of an article is publicly shared online, often as an Accepted Manuscript. To support a sustainable business model, publishers may maintain an embargo and/or may retain an Exclusive License to Publish. Articles, reviews and conference papers are counted as Green open access only if they are not also Gold. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Bronze represents those publications that are made free-to-read on the publisher’s website, but are not identified as gold for one of the following reasons: access for a limited duration, an unclear license, or a license that is clear but is not a Creative Commons license. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Subscription-only represents those publications that are available through individual or institutional subscriptions, individual purchases, or other programs (e.g. Research4Life) but not available through Open Access. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Authors increasingly selected gold OA for their publications
In aggregate, authors based in the top 30 article-producing countries and regions selected gold OA for 51% of papers in 2025, the rate of uptake having almost doubled (from 26%) since 2015.
The greatest increase in the selection of gold OA, in terms of share of publications where gold OA was available between 2015 and 2025, can be seen in the Netherlands (55%), Sweden (57%), and Switzerland (52%). In 2025, gold OA was selected in 50% or more cases for 24 of the countries and regions listed.
Gold represents those publications where the final published version of an article (Version of Record) is freely and permanently available online immediately on publication for anyone, anywhere to read. This includes articles in hybrid journals. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Green represents those publications where a version of an article is publicly shared online, often as an Accepted Manuscript. To support a sustainable business model, publishers may maintain an embargo and/or may retain an Exclusive License to Publish. Articles, reviews and conference papers are counted as Green open access only if they are not also Gold. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Bronze represents those publications that are made free-to-read on the publisher’s website, but are not identified as gold for one of the following reasons: access for a limited duration, an unclear license, or a license that is clear but is not a Creative Commons license. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Subscription-only represents those publications that are available through individual or institutional subscriptions, individual purchases, or other programs (e.g. Research4Life) but not available through Open Access. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Gold represents those publications where the final published version of an article (Version of Record) is freely and permanently available online immediately on publication for anyone, anywhere to read. This includes articles in hybrid journals. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Green represents those publications where a version of an article is publicly shared online, often as an Accepted Manuscript. To support a sustainable business model, publishers may maintain an embargo and/or may retain an Exclusive License to Publish. Articles, reviews and conference papers are counted as Green open access only if they are not also Gold. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Bronze represents those publications that are made free-to-read on the publisher’s website, but are not identified as gold for one of the following reasons: access for a limited duration, an unclear license, or a license that is clear but is not a Creative Commons license. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Subscription-only represents those publications that are available through individual or institutional subscriptions, individual purchases, or other programs (e.g. Research4Life) but not available through Open Access. See Methodology and Notes for more information.
Leading regions and groupings in total article outputs and OA
Authors in Asia, as a region, produced just over half (53%) of global articles, reviews and conference papers in 2025. Authors in Europe produced 22% while authors in the Americas produced 16% (North America 13% and South America 3% combined), followed by those based in Africa (3%)4, and Oceania (2%). Authors based in European Union member states produced 16% and those based in countries and regions eligible for Research4Life funding produced 6%.
Many countries/regions in Europe are leaders in embracing open access and 64% of publications authored in Europe (as a geographical region, not the European Union) were gold OA in 2025, representing 32% of gold OA articles globally.
Gold OA is now the dominant article type, exceeding subscription-only publishing, in all global regions except Asia.
Research4Life provides institutions in lower and middle-income countries/regions with access to academic and professional peer-reviewed content. This chart shows the aggregated total output of articles, reviews and conference papers by authors based in eligible countries/regions. The share of gold OA for these countries/regions in 2025, at 52%, exceeds the global figure of 44%.
4. Africa produced slightly more articles than South America as a percentage of global output. In 2025, Africa produced 3.1% and South America, 2.7% of global output.
